Route 66

Paper details: 1-Use on-line sources, they should be trusted sources (no Wikipedia or such). 2- Must have a cover page on a separate page. Then a 100-word (maximum) abstract, titled "Abstract" on a separate page. Followed by the 10 pages of the report. Then the references, titled "References" on a separate page. So the 10 pages are the main body and then just a cover and abstract and reference page. 3- please follow the final paper instructions file uploaded. 4- Check for Plagiarize percent! very important to be high quietly research 1 The Great Northern Railway and the Stone Arch Bridge By Sean Soraghan CON 101 Knutson Report #3 I hereby certify that the contents contained within are my original work and have in no way been influenced by outside works other than my own personal research. X__Sean Soraghan__ 2 Abstract The Great Northern Railway, under the direction of James J. Hill, was a major spark in the expansion between the Midwest and Northwestern United States. Workers put in countless hours of backbreaking labor, which included grading the ground, laying the track, and tunneling through mountains. The workers were also responsible for building the bridges that allowed the Great Northern to cross the deep valleys and rivers that stood in the way. One of the most spectacular and noteworthy of these bridges was the Stone Arch Bridge, built across the Mississippi River in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The Stone Arch Bridge still stands today, and has become a symbol of the Great Northern. The Great Northern Railway itself has become known as one of the most important railroads in the history of the United States. 3 Introduction During the mid 1800s, there was a sudden boom in the creation of railroads in the United States. Railroads provided the means for Americans to travel and settle between the two coasts and for the transportation of goods. From the end of the 19th century and early into the 20th, the railroad industry was such an important part of American life that we were known as the “steamcar civilization” (Hidy and Scott 2). The Great Northern Railway, located in the Northwestern United States, was one of the most important carriers in the nation. James Jerome Hill, known as the “Empire Builder,” is the man responsible for this incredible achievement. The Great Northern cut through mountains, across valleys, and over water. Bridges were an integral part of the success of the railway. The Stone Arch Bridge, located in Minneapolis, Minnesota, was one of the most important bridges of the Great Northern and the most visually appealing, and has since become a symbol of the railroad era. The Great Northern Railway History James J. Hill was the mastermind behind the Great Northern Railway, which extended from St. Paul, Minnesota to Seattle, Washington. Hill was known as the “Empire Builder” due to his talent for creating prosperous business and the population that he built around his railroads. His railroads extended all over the United States, from the Great Lakes to Puget Sound and from Canada to the South (Muller 1). The Great Northern Railway, his most well known creation, was created from several predecessor railroads in Minnesota. It began in 1857 4 as the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad Company (GN: Hill’s Great Adventure). After a foreclosure in 1879, Hill purchased the railway for $280,000 and reorganized it into the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba Railway Company. He then purchased rails, rolling stock, locomotives, and laborers, and began expanding the lines westward. The railway extended quickly into Minnesota and Dakota territory. Hill was very involved in the planning of the railroad; he would select the path of the railroad, and he did much of the grading and curve analysis on his own (Muller 1). Most towns welcomed the railroad due to the revenues it brought with it. If a town rejected Hill’s request to build through it, as in the case of Fort Benton in Montana, he would simply build around it (Muller 2). After laying his rails, Hill worked hard to sell and colonize the land surrounding his railway. Hill encouraged settlement along the railroad by letting immigrants travel halfway across the country for $10 if they settled along the route. He also rented freight cars to families for little money, which encouraged business (GN: Hill’s Great Adventure). In September of 1889, the name of the railway was changed to the Great Northern Railway Company, and Hill continued to expand the lines westward. By winter of 1887, the lines had reached Great Falls, Washington. The construction process was moving very quickly; Hill was employing over 8000 men and 3300 horse teams while building this transcontinental route (Muller 3). In January of 1893, the final seven miles of track were laid to link Puget Sound to the upper Midwest. Hill’s immense railway system turned the city of Seattle, Washington into a major international shipping port, and was responsible for a large increase in population between the Midwest and Northwestern United States. The success of the Great Northern railway proved Hill’s critics wrong, who initially dubbed the railroad “Hill’s Folly,” due to the 5 fact that the project was all privately funded (GN: Hill’s Great Adventure). James J. Hill died in 1907, and left his son in charge of the Great Northern. In 1970, a major railroad merger took place; the product of this merger was the Burlington Northern Company, which included the Great Northern, the North Pacific, the Chicago, the Burlington and Quincy, and the Portland and Seattle railways (Hidy and Scott 4). The Workers The building of the Great Northern railway was dangerous, sweaty, and backbreaking business. There was a wide range of men who took on this task, including farmers, Civil War veterans, Irish and German immigrants, and Chinese immigrants. Using the muscle power of these men, the railroad advanced at a rate of two to five miles per day. Through the use of sledges, hammers, wood, shovels, iron hand drills, nitroglycerin, and kegs of black powder (explosives), the men were able to fill ravines, punch through mountains, and build over rivers and valleys (Wheeler 83). Once the routes were settled and the financing was arranged, the railroad men transformed the plans into mile upon mile of solid roadbed and track. Engineers and contractors headed the construction. Below them were surveyors, graders, pick and shovel men, rust-eaters (the men who handled the rails), and hundreds of other men responsible for the wide range of tasks (Wheeler 91). The workers slept in box cars that were part of the work train that followed the freshly laid track. Each box car was about 85 feet long; their interiors were lined with triple tiers of bunks where the workers would sleep. The bunks were always filled, so some of the men would have to sleep in tents on the roofs of the box cars. The workers would awake around 5:30 am, 6 and eat breakfast in the dining car. Following breakfast, the crews set to work at about 6:30 am, and usually stayed on the job until sundown, with an hour break at noon for lunch (Wheeler 99). Construction The system that Hill worked out for the construction of the Great Northern was simple, but very effective. About 350 to 400 miles ahead of the track, surveyors would survey the land and determine the best route for the railway. Around 300 miles ahead of the track, the “roustabouts” would be grading the roadbed using horses, mules, scrapers, dump carts, and shovels. Meanwhile, “bridge monkeys” would be building the trestles to cross over the rivers and valleys that stood in the way of the Great Northern’s path (Wheeler 100). The rest of the workers, along with the work train, moved along the freshly laid track. The work train consisted of several cars that provided all the necessities for the construction process and the comfort of the workers. Closest to the point of construction were two or more flatcars which held all of the tools and materials as well as the blacksmith shop. Next came three or four bunking cars where the workers would sleep, followed by a dining car where around 125 men could eat at a time. The final car on the work train contained the kitchen, storeroom, and the engineer’s office (Wheeler 99). The actual laying of the track was pretty simple, but it was very exhausting for the workers. First, precut timbers were laid down the path that the track would follow. The timbers were cut and fit before being mule freighted to the site (Wheeler 99). Next, the rails had to be laid. It began with two lightweight carts drawn by a horse on each side of the track. The carts were placed next to a stockpile that contained all of the supplies that the track gang would need 7 for the day. Six man crews piled each of the carts with 16 rails plus the proper number of spikes, bolts, and rail couplings. The carts would then be hauled by the horses to the end of the track where the last pair of rails had been spiked down. The rails were then pulled off the cart in pairs, five men to each rail. The carts were equipped with rollers so the rails would slide off easily. The men would then place the rails on the roadbed, and use a wooden gauge to space the rails exactly 4 feet 8 ½ inches apart. Then, the spike men would spike down the rail using their large metal mauls. Meanwhile, the cart would be pulled off the tracks to make way for the next one (Wheeler 100). Each rail took about 30 seconds for the track gang to spike down, so four rails were laid per minute (Wheeler 83). When the roustabouts ahead of the track layers encountered a mountain, they could either build through it, around it, or alongside it, whichever was the most practical. The workers would drill holes into the rocks and place explosives inside in order to remove large chunks. The men would also hack at the mountain by hand with sledges. Meanwhile, the rock debris and earth would be hauled off by horse drawn carts (Wheeler 87). The process of cutting through or alongside a mountain was so tedious that some crews had to put in 3 shift, 24 hour work days! The Stamped Tunnel, which cuts through the Northern Cascade Mountains, is the longest tunnel along the Great Northern, cutting through about two miles of rock (Wheeler 105). The men who built the Great Northern Railroad laid over 1700 miles of track between Minneapolis and Puget Sound. Between April 2 and November 19, 1887, the men laid 643 miles of track alone, a record which still stands today (Wheeler 85). How Would it be Built Today? 8 Most of the railroads that extend throughout the United States today were built between the mid 1800s and the early 1900s, so they were all built in a similar manner to the Great Northern. The methods that they employed during this period were simple, but quite effective. After all, many of the railways still exist today; however, they have been continuously maintained throughout the years. Due to the effectiveness of these methods, the Great Northern would most likely be constructed in a very similar manner if it were built today. The main difference would probably be the equipment used. With today’s advanced technology and our use of machinery, we would need much less man power and time to complete the railroad. Large excavating and grading machines could be used to level off the land and create the roadbed. Once the roadbed was laid, trucks could be used to carry all of the materials to the site. One man could power a mini crane or a similar machine to lay down the rails, about 10 other men could use their own power and a gauge to make sure the tracks were parallel. Once the rails were laid, a cart-like machine that could be rolled along the track could be used to spike down the rails. It would use a pressure system to drive the spikes into the rails. When the railway encountered a mountain, our much more sophisticated explosive devices and large drilling machines would be used to punch through it–the use of hand held sledges would not be necessary. All in all, modern methods would be much less strenuous and time consuming, but the end results would be about the same. The Stone Arch Bridge A very important aspect of the American railroads were the great bridges that allowed the railways to span across the deep rivers and valley that stood in the way. The Great Northern had 9 several bridges that allowed it to continue its path across the rugged terrain in the Northwestern United States. One of the most important and spectacular bridges built along the Great Northern was the Stone Arch Bridge, which is located in Minneapolis, Minnesota. History The Stone Arch Bridge crosses the Mississippi River at St. Anthony falls, the only waterfall along the Mississippi. The Stone Arch Bridge was built at the request of the Great Northern’s owner James J. Hill, who believed it would allow for increased movement of people and goods across the river (Stone Arch Bridge). Construction began in February of 1881, under the direction of Colonel Charles C. Smith, and lasted almost three years. The initial plan had called for an iron bridge located above the falls. Smith, however, persuaded Hill to build the bridge of stone, which would be more durable. They also decided that the bridge would be located below the falls, which would provide better conditions for building the piers (Middleton 35). The bridge is the only one of its kind along the Mississippi; it is built from native granite and limestone, spanning across the river with 23 graceful arches. The bridge ceased to be used for railroad traffic in 1982, when the last Burlington Northern train crossed the structure ([email protected]). Although it was no longer used for railroad traffic, it was left intact as a symbol of the railroad age. Due to its noteworthy physical structure and its role in the growth of Minneapolis, the Stone Arch Bridge was named a National Historic Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1976 (Stone Arch Bridge). Since 1982, the bridge has been used only by pedestrians, bikers, and a trolley that carries people across the 10 bridge. In 1994, a partnership of public agencies raised $2.8 million to restore the bridge and prepare it for recreational use. The rehabilitation included extensive work to repair and stabilize the structure and the addition of light fixtures along the surface and underside of the arches to highlight the bridge at night (Minnesota Icon). Culture Although the art of bridge building has been practiced since the ancient civilizations, the dawn of the railroad age marked the arrival of several advancements in the art. During the early 19th century, building a strong bridge was a very expensive and tedious process. During the railroad era, however, there was the need for more economical bridges that could be built quickly and still be able to support the weight of the heavy loads of the locomotives. For this reason, the stone arch, one of the oldest types of bridge structures, was replaced by newer forms and materials: first by wood arch and truss bridges, and then by cast and wrought iron trusses (Middleton 2). Although these new bridges were less costly and easier to build, they did have their down-sides. For example, wood is subject to decay and fire, while cast iron is brittle and weak in tension. Moreover, the bridge designers of the late 19th century did not fully understand the forces acting on a bridge structure. The heavy load of the locomotive subjected the bridges to stresses for which they were not designed, which often led to the need for repairs or the collapse of the bridge (Middleton 4). The stone arch, on the other hand, had been proven to be very sturdy and able to withstand the test of time; not to mention that it is pleasing to look at. Therefore, James J. Hill and Colonel Smith decided that the Great Northern Railway would cross 11 the Mississippi using arches of stone. Construction Colonel Smith designed the 2100 foot long structure, which crossed the Mississippi River at an angle and then curved to the north as it approached the west bank. The structure had an overall height of 82 feet and stood 65 feet above the water level. The width of the bridge was 24 feet, which provided space for a double track line. The bridge was composed of a total of 23 semicircular arches, with four spans of 100 feet, 16 of 80 feet, and three of 40 feet (Middleton 35). Shortly after the construction of the bridge began, Hill and the workers realized that building a stone masonry structure was more costly and time consuming than they had expected. In February of 1882, it was reported that there were 400 men working on the bridge during the day, with another 100 men working at night. Hundreds of more men were at the quarries that produced the 100,000 tons of stone required for the structure. Despite the immense work force, the Stone Arch Bridge took almost three years to complete (Middleton 35). The piers at each end of the bridge were founded on a limestone ledge that was continuous with the ledge in the bottom of the river above the falls. Caissons were sunk six to eight feet below the bottom of the river (Middleton 36). Steam powered pumps removed the water from the caissons, which were then filled with concrete to form the base of the piers. The footings of the piers were made of Portland cement. Once the piers were in place, wooden centers were built for the construction of the arches ([email protected]). The arch bridge is a pure compression structure, which is why it is good to use stone. 12 The stones that form the arch (the voussoirs), were precut into wedges and placed symmetrically along the centering, working toward the crown from both sides to form the semicircular profile. When the keystone was placed, the weight of the bridge was carried outward along the curved path of the arch. At the point where the arch reaches the ground, the downward force along the arch is resisted by the piers, while the outward thrust is resisted by abutments to prevent it from spreading out and collapsing (Bennet 76). The portion of the piers above the level of the footings were composed of granite and limestone. The ring stones (voussoirs), arch sheeting, spandrel walls (the walls between the arch of the bridge and its sides), and capstones were all made from limestone from quarries in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa. During the winter months, the water used in the mortar that held the blocks together had to be heated to prevent it from freezing. The Stone Arch Bridge was finally completed in 1883. It was composed of about 49,000 cubic yards of masonry (Middleton 36). During the next 99 years, the Stone Arch Bridge served the Great Northern well, with a few touch-ups along the way. From 1907 through 1911, a new drainage system was installed. The bridge was also reinforced with steel tie rods and reinforced concrete arch rings were placed on top of the original stone arches ([email protected]). In 1962, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers were in charge of a project that caused some aesthetic damage to the elegant bridge. In order to extend navigation above St. Anthony Falls, the Corps built a lock for barge traffic on the west bank of the river. At the point where the bridge began to curve towards the west bank, a pier and two arches were removed and replaced with a 200 foot long steel truss span to provide a clear channel for the entrance to the lock. Then, following the Mississippi 13 floods in the spring of 1965, three piers were severely weakened by the raging waters, causing a 100 foot section of the bridge to settle. The bridge was closed for a sixth month period, during which time repairs were made to restore the tracks back up to the correct level; however, there remained a permanent dip in the damaged section of the bridge (Middleton 36). How Would it be Built Today? Since the late 1800s when the Stone Arch Bridge was built, there have been incredible advances in our technology and bridge design. There are many new materials and methods involved in building bridges that allow lighter bridges to span greater distances at cheaper costs. As mentioned earlier, wood and stone as material for bridges was replaced by wrought iron in the mid 19th century. Eventually, wrought iron bridges were replaced by bridges composed of concrete and steel, the two primary bridge materials of the 20th century. Steel evolved from iron. It is a stronger, more ductile alloy that is not susceptible to brittle failure like iron. Today, bridge builders use steel wire strands and hot rolled steel sections in their bridges, which are very good in tension (Bennet 38). Concrete, on the other hand, is very good under compression, and can be prefabricated and molded to any shape. With the new materials and technology available today, bridge builders would have a variety of bridge types to choose from to cross the Mississippi at the same position as the Stone Arch Bridge. If the builder wanted to maintain the arch structure, a more modern form of the stone arch could be used. Modern arch bridges are built mostly of steel and reinforced concrete, which is concrete reinforced with steel rods which allows it to bend more and recover. In order to build a concrete arch bridge, concrete is poured into wooden or metal arch forms supported on 14 scaffolding with the steel reinforcement already in place. When the concrete has hardened, the formwork is removed, and the structure is very strong (Bennet 73). A series of such arches resting on piers similar to that of the Stone Arch Bridge could be used to cross the Mississippi at St. Anthony Falls, but the concrete would not be as aesthetically appealing as stone. Another modern bridge type that could be used in place of the Stone Arch Bridge is a suspension bridge. Suspension bridges, such as the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, have greater spans than any other type of bridge. Steel cables can support thousands of tons of force and carry the load of the bridge. The cables are supported by towers and anchored at each end of the bridge to maintain its suspended shape. Caissons would be built to support the towers of the bridge. Tension cables and hangers extend from the towers, and vertical cables support the roadway, which is itself a truss bridge or a stiff box girder. Anchors at each end of the bridge would prevent the tower from bending and resist the tension pull in the cables (Bennet 82). A suspension bridge could possibly be a little overbearing for the crossing near St. Anthony Falls. Therefore, a cable-stayed bridge would probably be more practical. Cablestayed bridges are more efficient than suspension bridges over shorter spans, requiring fewer cables to support the bridge deck. Instead of long draping cables, the bridge deck is supported by a series of individual cables that connect from the cable mast (tower) directly to the bridge deck, with the cables arranged in a fan-like configuration (Bennet 92). Most likely, two towers built atop caissons would support the entire bridge deck. Due to the efficiency of the cablestayed bridge over short spans, a modern bridge builder would likely use this type of bridge in place of the Stone Arch Bridge. No matter what type of bridge design is used, it would definitely be less costly and time consuming than building a bridge of stone arches. 15 Conclusion The Great Northern Railway, under the direction of James J. Hill, was a major spark in the expansion between the Midwest and the Northwestern United States. Workers put in countless hours of backbreaking labor, which included grading the ground, laying the track, and tunneling through mountains. The workers were also responsible for the bridges that allowed the Great Northern to cross the deep valleys and rivers that stood in the way. One of the most spectacular and noteworthy of these bridges was the Stone Arch Bridge, built across the Mississippi River in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The bridge allowed increased movement of people and goods across the river and was vital to the growth of Minneapolis. The Stone Arch Bridge still stands today, and has become a symbol of the Great Northern. Due to the great length of the track, the wide region that it covered, and the high profits that it received, the Great Northern remained successful throughout the years. Therefore, the Great Northern Railway has become known as one of the most important railroads in the history of the United States. Works Cited 16 Bennet, David. The Creation of Bridges. London, England: Autumn Press Ltd., 1999. “Great Northern: James J. Hill’s Great Adventure.” BNSF History. On-Line. Internet. 15 November 2004. Available WWW: http://www.bnsf.com/about_bnsf/html/history.html. Hidy, Ralph W., Muriel E. Hidy, and Ray V. Scott. The Great Northern Railway: A History. Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard Business School Press, 1985. Middleton, William D. Landmarks of the Iron Road: Two Centuries of North American Railroad Engineering. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1999. Muller, Christopher. “James J. Hill.” Rail Serve (December 1996): 4 pp. On-Line. Internet. 15 November 2004. Available WWW: http://www.railserve.com/JJHill.html. “Stone Arch Bridge.” Mississippi National River and Recreation Area (20 May 2004). OnLine. Internet. 15 November 2004. Available WWW: http://www.nps.gov/miss/maps/model.sabridge.html. “Stone Arch Bridge–A Minnesota Icon.” Official Website of the City of Minneapolis (1997). On-Line. Internet. 15 November 2004. Available WWW: http://www.ci.minneapolis.mn.us/about/stonearch.asp. 17 [email protected]. “Stone Arch Bridge: St. Anthony Falls.” Minnesotabound.com. On-Line. Internet. 15 November 2004. Available WWW: http://www.minnesotabound.com/visit/stonearchbridge/. Wheeler, Keith. The Railroaders. New York: Time-Life Books, 1973.